The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. The role of employers and employer organisations in facilitating this, as well as graduates learning and professional development, may therefore be paramount. Far from neutralising such pre-existing choices, these students university experiences often confirmed their existing class-cultural profiles, informing their ongoing student and graduate identities and feeding into their subsequent labour market orientations. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Tomlinson, M. Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes. What this has shown is that graduates see the link between participation in HE and future returns to have been disrupted through mass HE. Yet the position of graduates in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations. They see society like a human body, where key institutions work like the body's organs to keep the society/body healthy and well.Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Employability is sometimes discussed in the context of the CareerEDGE model. This review has highlighted how this shifting dynamic has reshaped the nature of graduates transitions into the labour market, as well as the ways in which they begin to make sense of and align themselves towards future labour market demands. The expansion of HE, and the creation of new forms of HEIs and degree provision, has resulted in a more heterogeneous mix of graduates leaving universities (Scott, 2005). Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? On the other hand, less optimistic perspectives tend to portray contemporary employment as being both more intensive and precarious (Sennett, 2006). Perhaps increasingly central to the changing dynamic between HE and the labour market has been the issue of graduate employability. For graduates, the inflation of HE qualifications has resulted in a gradual downturn in their value: UK graduates are aware of competing in relative terms for sought-after jobs, and with increasing employer demands. There are many different lists of cardinal accomplishments . Dominant discourses on graduates employability have tended to centre on the economic role of graduates and the capacity of HE to equip them for the labour market. Wider critiques of skills policy (Wolf, 2007) have tended to challenge naive conceptualisations of skills, bringing into question both their actual relationship to employee practices and the extent to which they are likely to be genuinely demand-led. develop the ideas in his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936). Moreover, there is evidence of national variations between graduates from different countries, contingent on the modes of capitalism within different countries. Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). As Little and Archer (2010) argue, the relative looseness in the relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally not presented problems for either graduates or employers, particularly in more flexible economies such as the United Kingdom. It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. Morley, L. and Aynsley, S. (2007) Employers, quality and standards in higher education: Shared values and vocabularies or elitism and inequalities? Higher Education Quarterly 61 (3): 229249. editors. In terms of social class influences on graduate labour market orientations, this is likely to work in both intuitive and reflexive ways. For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. (2008) Graduate Employability: The View of Employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. One particular consequence of a massified, differentiated HE is therefore likely to be increased discrimination between different types of graduates. Harvey, L., Moon, S. and Geall, V. (1997) Graduates Work: Organisational Change and Students Attributes, Birmingham: QHE. 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Graduates are therefore increasingly likely to see responsibility for future employability as falling quite sharply onto the shoulders of the individual graduate: being a graduate and possessing graduate-level credentials no longer warrants access to sought-after employment, if only because so many other graduates share similar educational and pre-work profiles. This relates largely to the ways in which they approach the job market and begin to construct and manage their individual employability, mediated largely through the types of work-related dispositions and identities that they are developing. The different orientations students are developing appear to be derived from emerging identities and self-perceptions as future employees, as well as from wider biographical dimensions of the student. It appears that the wider educational profile of the graduate is likely to have a significant bearing on their future labour market outcomes. Functionalism is a structural theory and posits that the social institutions and organization of society . (2011) Towards a theoretical framework for the comparative understanding of globalisation, higher education, the labour market and inequality, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 185207. Moreover, in the context of flexible and competitive globalisation, the highly educated may find themselves forming part of an increasingly disenfranchised new middle class, continually at the mercy of agile, cost-driven flows in skilled labour, and in competition with contemporaries from newly emerging economies. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). Rather than being insulated from these new challenges, highly educated graduates are likely to be at the sharp end of the increasing intensification of work, and its associated pressures around continual career management. The review has also highlighted the contested terrain around which debates on graduates employability and its development take place. Moreover, they will be more productive, have higher earning potential and be able to access a range of labour market goods including better working conditions, higher status and more fulfilling work. Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. consensus theory of employability. The construction of personal employability does not stop at graduation: graduates appear aware of the need for continued lifelong learning and professional development throughout the different phases of their career progression. Historically, the majority of employability research and practice pertained to vocational rehabilitation or to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates. Based on society's agreement - or consensus - on our shared norms and values, individuals are happy to stick to the rules for the sake of the greater good.Ultimately, this helps us achieve social order and stability. Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. By reductio ad absurdum, Keynes demonstrates that the predictions of Classical theory do not accord with the observed response of workers to changes in real wages. A consensus theory approach sees sport as a source of collective harmony, a way of binding people together in a shared experience. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. Article Similar to the Bowman et al. Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. Conflict theory in sociology. Individuals therefore need to proactively manage these risks (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). The challenge, it seems, is for graduates to become adept at reading these signals and reframing both their expectations and behaviours. Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Teichler, U. If individuals are able to capitalise upon their education and training, and adopt relatively flexible and proactive approaches to their working lives, then they will experience favourable labour market returns and conditions. Mass HE may therefore be perpetuating the types of structural inequalities it was intended to alleviate. Keynesian economics was developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes . Holmes, L. (2001) Graduate employability: The graduate identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 (1): 111119. High Educ Policy 25, 407431 (2012). (2010) Overqualifcation, job satisfaction, and increasing dispersion in the returns to graduate education, Oxford Economic Papers 62 (4): 740763. Thus, HE has been traditionally viewed as providing a positive platform from which graduates could integrate successfully into economic life, as well as servicing the economy effectively. For instance, non-traditional students who had studied at local institutions may be far more likely to fix their career goals around local labour markets, some of which may afford limited opportunities for career progression. Advancement in technological innovation requires the application of technical skills and knowledge; thus, attracting and retaining talented knowledge workers have become crucial for incumbent firms . % It appears that students and graduates reflect upon their relationship with the labour market and what they might need to achieve their goals. The theory of post war consensus has been used by political historians and political scientists to explain and understand British political developments in the era between 1945 and 1979. In some parts of Europe, graduates frame their employability more around the extent to which they can fulfil the specific occupational criteria based on specialist training and knowledge. Such changes have coincided with what has typically been seen as a shift towards a more flexible, post-industrialised knowledge-driven economy that places increasing demands on the workforce and necessitates new forms of work-related skills (Hassard et al., 2008). That graduates employability is intimately related to personal identities and frames of reference reflects the socially constructed nature of employability more generally: it entails a negotiated ordering between the graduate and the wider social and economic structures through which they are navigating. Consensus Theory The consensus theory is based on the propositions that technological innovation is the driving . ISSN 2039-9340 (print) ISSN 2039-2117 (online) Return to Article Details Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. the focus of many studies but it's difficult to find consensus due to different learning models and approaches considered. Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. (2005) Empowering participants or corroding learning: Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education, Journal of Education Policy 20 (3): 267281. and Soskice, D.W. (2001) Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. It is also considered as both a product (a set of skills that enable) and as a . This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. Chapter 1 1. The paper considers the wider context of higher education (HE) and labour market change, and the policy thinking towards graduate employability. These concerns may further feed into students approaches to HE more generally, increasingly characterised by more instrumental, consumer-driven and acquisitive learning approaches (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). In the United Kingdom, as in other countries, clear differences have been reported on the class-cultural and academic profiles of graduates from different HEIs, along with different rates of graduate return (Archer et al., 2003; Furlong and Cartmel, 2005; Power and Whitty, 2006). 2003). The challenge for graduate employees is to develop strategies that militate against such likelihoods. Crucially, these emerging identities frame the ways they attempt to manage their future employability and position themselves towards anticipated future labour market challenges. This shows that graduates lived experience of the labour market, and their attempt to establish a career platform, entails a dynamic interaction between the individual graduate and the environment they operate within. Johnston, B. [PDF] Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and 02 May 2015 Education is vital in the knowledge economy as the commodity of . (2003) The shape of research in the field of higher education and graduate employment: Some issues, Studies in Higher Education 28 (4): 413426. Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . Research Paper 1, University of West England & Warwick University, Warwick Institute for Employment Research. Research on the more subjective, identity-based aspects of graduate employability also shows that graduates dispositions tend to derive from wider aspects of their educational and cultural biographies, and that these exercise some substantial influence on their propensities towards future employment. This review has shown that the problem of graduate employability maps strongly onto the shifting dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market. The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specifically their skill development . Consensus theories include functionalism, strain theory and subcultural theory. (eds.) Non-traditional graduates or new recruits to the middle classes may be less skilled at reading the changing demands of employers (Savage, 2003; Reay et al., 2006). (2006) showed that students choices towards studying at particular HEIs are likely to reflect subsequent choices. Hassard, J., McCann, L. and Morris, J.L. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. It also introduces 'positional conflict theory' as a way of *1*.J\ The differentiated and heterogeneous labour market that graduates enter means that there is likely to be little uniformity in the way students constructs employability, notionally and personally. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. Such graduates are therefore likely to shy away, or psychologically distance themselves, from what they perceive as particular cultural practices, values and protocols that are at odds with their existing ones. Research by both Furlong and Cartmel (2005) and Power and Whitty (2006) shows strong evidence of socio-economic influences on graduate returns, with graduates relative HE experiences often mediating the link between their origins and their destinations. The consensus theory emphasizes that the social order is through the shared norms, and belief systems of people. The most discernable changes in HE have been its gradual massification over the past three decades and, in more recent times, the move towards greater individual expenditure towards HE in the form of student fees. Employability is a product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and transferable. How employable a graduate is, or perceives themselves to be, is derived largely from their self-perception of themselves as a future employee and the types of work-related dispositions they are developing. This is perhaps reflected in the increasing amount of new, modern and niche forms of graduate employment, including graduate sales mangers, marketing and PR officers, and IT executives. Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . What this research has shown is that graduates anticipate the labour market to engender high risks and uncertainties (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007) and are managing their expectations accordingly. <>stream 6 0 obj (2003) and Reay et al. Moreover, this may well influence the ways in which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability. The theory of employability can be hard to place ; there can be many factors that contribute to the thought of being employable. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates' skills for the labour market. Sennett, R. (2006) The Culture of New Capitalism, Yale: Yale University Press. The underlying assumption of this view is that the This appears to be a response to increased competition and flexibility in the labour market, reflecting an awareness that their longer-term career trajectories are less likely to follow stable or certain pathways. In effect, individuals can no longer rely on their existing educational and labour market profiles for shaping their longer-term career progression. At the same time, the seeming consensus regarding employability as an outcome with reference to employment or employment rates belies the complexity that surrounds the concept in the wider literature. Yet at a time when stakes within the labour market have risen, graduates are likely to demand that this link becomes a more tangible one. Smart et al. In Europe, it would appear that HE is a more clearly defined agent for pre-work socialisation that more readily channels graduates to specific forms of employment. His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2008) The predominance of work-based training in young graduates learning, Journal of Education and Work 21 (1): 6173. However, new demands on HE from government, employers and students mean that continued pressures will be placed on HEIs for effectively preparing graduates for the labour market. . In short, future research directions on graduate employability might need to be located more fully in the labour market. Wilton, N. (2008) Business graduates and management jobs: An employability match made in heaven? Journal of Education and Work 21 (2): 143158. However despite there being different concepts to analyse the make up of "employability", the consensus of these is that there are three key qualities when assessing the employability of graduates: These . Introduction. Consensus v. conflict perspectives -Consensus Theory In general, this theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society. In section 6, an holistic framework for under- As a wider policy narrative, employability maps onto some significant concerns about the shifting interplays between universities, economy and state. What has perhaps been characteristic of more recent policy discourses has been the strong emphasis on harnessing HE's activities to meet changing economic demands. Mason, G. (2002) High skills utilisation under mass higher education: Graduate employment in the service industries in Britain, Journal of Education and Work 14 (4): 427456. According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. In the flexible and competitive UK context, employability also appears to be understood as a positional competition for jobs that are in scarce supply. The past decade in the United Kingdom has therefore seen a strong focus on employability skills, including communication, teamworking, ICT and self-management being built into formal curricula. Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. (2000) Recruiting a graduate elite? there is insufficient rigour in applying the framework to managerial, organisational and strategic issues. Moreover, this is likely to shape their orientations towards the labour market, potentially affecting their overall trajectories and outcomes. Intentionally avoiding the term employability (because of a lack of consensus on the specific meaning and measurement of this concept), they instead define movement capital as: 'skills, knowledge, competencies and attitudes influencing an individual's career mobility opportunities' (p. 742). The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. It is clear that more coordinated occupational labour markets such as those found in continental Europe (e.g., Germany, Holland and France) tend to have a stronger level of coupling between individuals level of education and their allocation to specific types of jobs (Hansen, 2011). Roberts, K. (2009) Opportunity structures then and now, Journal of Education and Work 22 (5): 355368. Strathdee, R. (2011) Educational reform, inequality and the structure of higher education in New Zealand, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 2749. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. The relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally been a closely corresponding one, although in sometimes loose and intangible ways (Brennan et al., 1996; Johnston, 2003). Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. For some graduates, HE continues to be a clear route towards traditional middle-class employment and lifestyle; yet for others it may amount to little more than an opportunity cost. It first relates the theme of graduate employability to the changing dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing role of HE in regulating graduate-level work. A further policy response towards graduate employability has been around the enhancement of graduates skills, following the influential Dearing Report (1997). Players are adept at responding to such competition, embarking upon strategies that will enable them to acquire and present the types of employability narratives that employers demand. In effect, market rules dominate. The global move towards mass HE is resulting in a much wider body of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market. Perhaps one consensus uniting discussion on the effects of labour market change is that the new knowledge-based economy entails significant challenges for individuals, including those who are well educated. The study explores differences in the implicit employability theories of those involved in developing employability (educators) and those selecting and recruiting higher education (HE) students and graduates (employers). Both policymakers and employers have looked to exert a stronger influence on the HE agenda, particularly around its formal provisions, in order to ensure that graduates leaving HE are fit-for-purpose (Teichler, 1999, 2007; Harvey, 2000). Bowers-Brown, T. and Harvey, L. (2004) Are there too many graduates in the UK? Industry and Higher Education 18 (4): 243254. Strangleman, T. (2007) The nostalgia for the permanence of work? If the occupational structure does not become sufficiently upgraded to accommodate the continued supply of graduates, then mismatches between graduates level of education and the demands of their jobs may ensue. While at one level the correspondence between HE and the labour market has become blurred by these various structural changes, there has also been something of a tightening of the relationship. Morley (2001) however states that employability . Employability. Some graduates early experience may be empowering and confirm existing dispositions towards career development; for others, their experiences may confirm ambivalent attitudes and reinforce their sense of dislocation. (2011) Graduate identity and employability, British Educational Research Journal 37 (4): 563584. In countries where training routes are less demarcated (for instance those with mass HE systems), these differences are less pronounced. Participation in HE and the policy thinking towards graduate employability might need to achieve their goals 2008 ) graduates. Employability focus has been around the enhancement of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market.... 2002 ), L. 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